Archaeology
Archaeology is the study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and the analysis of artifacts and other physical remains. Archaeology is the systematic recovery and study of material evidence, such as buildings, tools, pottery, and graves, that remains from past human life and culture. From Archae = Ancient, Ology = Greek, study of. An archaeologist is a person who studies human history, particularly the culture of historic and prehistoric people, through the discovery and exploration of remains, structures, and writings. Anthropology is the scientific study of the origin, the behavior, and the physical, social, and cultural development of human beings. Anthropology = Greek anthrpos, human being, and study of. The scientific study of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth. Also, the structure of a specific region of the Earth's crust. Greek Gê - earth and Ology - study of. Paleontology: The study of life existing in prehistoric times, as represented by the fossils of plants, animals, and other organisms. Greek palaio-, from palaios, long ago, study of. The archaeological record is the body of physical (i.e. not written) evidence about the past. Archaeologists document and interpret the archaeological record. Archaeological theory is used to interpret the archaeological record for a better understanding of human cultures.
When compared to other religious books, the Bible is unique in that it is the oldest, as testified by the places, people, and title and events mentioned in the Bible; and the language and literary formats used to compose the Bible. Has everything been found? No archaeology is looking for very old things. Is there enough to confirm the Bible? Yes, and more is found each year!
Time: CE = Common Era or Current Era or (Christian Era), CE is the same as AD. AD = Anno Domini, Latin for in the year of the Lord. Or in the year of Our Lord Jesus Christ. Both are years since Jesus Christ’s birth. BCE = Before the Common Era or Before Current Era or Before Christian Era. BCE is the same as BC. BC = Before Christ. Both time before Christ’s birth. Dating From Today: kya = Thousand years ago or “ka”. mya = Million years ago or “ma”. Bya = Billion years ago or “Ga”. bp = Before present (today). A Geological Period is the basic unit of geological time in which a single type of rock system is formed. Two or more periods comprise a geological Era. i.e., the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period are defined by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, 66 mya (million years ago). Era is a span of time marked by events on earth. When used in geology, an era denotes a clearly defined period of time. For example, the Mesozoic Era is 252 mya to 66 mya. Two or more Eras form an Eon, the largest division of geologic: Eons: Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The Cenozoic Era is the current and most recent of the three Phanerozoic geological eras. The Cenozoic Era covers the period from 66 million years ago to the present day. The Cenozoic is also known as the Age of Mammals. The Mesozoic Era is an interval of geological time from about 252 to 66 million years ago. It is also called the Age of Reptiles. Divided to three Periods: Triassic Period 252 to 201 mya. Jurassic Period 201 to 145 mya. Cretaceous Period 145 to 66 mya. The Paleozoic is the oldest of three geologic eras spanning from 541 to 252 million years ago: The Cambrian Period was the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era, lasting from 541 to 485 (mya). The Cambrian explosion was a short event around 542 mya, during which most major animal phyla (body plans) appeared.
Some ways in which archaeologists determine the age of sites, structures, or artifacts. 1) Radiocarbon dating 2) Sediment Layer 3) Thermoluminescence dating 4) Tree Rings 5) Radiometric dating 6) Ice Core
1) Radiocarbon determination of the approximate age of an ancient object by measuring the amount of carbon-14 it contains. Error bars ±40-150 years, Maximum range of 50,000 years. Minimum age about 4,500 years. Concern is always contamination, how pure is the sample?
2) Sediment Layer : The layer on top must have been placed there at a later point in time than the lower layers (unless folding occurred in the past). Ash Sediment Layer Dating.Each Eruption’s ash is different. Pollen is annually deposited in layers.
3) Thermoluminescence dating: Measuring the radiation dose determines the time elapsed since material containing crystalline minerals was either heated (lava, ceramics) or exposed to sunlight. Can have large error bars. Dating Range: 1,000 - 300,000,000 yrs; the error bars not always quoted!
4) Tree Rings: Very Accurate. Annual growth in summer makes tree rings. Rings also record the rainfall and sunshine received. Fire scars are also record.
5) Radiometric Dating : Potassium-argon dating: The ratio of argon to potassium from the radioactive decay of a potassium isotope into argon. Potassium-40 is usually found in significant amounts in volcanic rock and ash. 100,000 to 4.5 billion years. Note there is a gap from 50,000 to 100,00 years ago.
Uranium-lead dating: The ratio of lead to uranium from the radioactive decay of uranium into lead. 1 million years to 4.5 billion years ago. Low error bar. An isotope of uranium will take 2.250 Billion years to become 25% lead.
Uranium Thorium Dating: Good for carbonate sediments, bones, and teeth. Range: 1,000 - 500,000 yr.
6) Ice Core: Counts snow layers containing ash and pollen deposits that are trapped in the ice. The oldest sample is 800,000 years old. Volcanic eruptions leave identifiable ash layers. Samples from Greenland and Antarctica.
Archaeomagnetism uses the changes in the Earth's magnetic field in the past. Materials with enough iron content can be dated. The iron may have aligned to magnetic north when heated. 600AD – present, if the object is not moved.
Many coins have the date of their production written on them or their use is specified in the historical record, such as the reign of a ruler. The study of pottery is a key into the study of past cultures. Paleography is the study of ancient writing, including the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating historical manuscripts. It includes the study of ancient and historical handwriting, which differs over time and cultures.
Bible Finds - Bible Archaeology
The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collection of 981 different texts discovered between 1947 and 1956 in eleven caves about 1.2 miles inland from the northwest shore of the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea Scrolls are the single most important manuscript find in history. Placed into caves around 408 BC to 200 BC for safekeeping: 40% of scrolls are Bible Scrolls. Jews hid them away in caves for fear of the Jewish / Roman Wars - Revolts. Has all books of OT, other than Easter. Only one Scroll was almost completely intact: The Isaiah Scroll from 335 BC. The Great Isaiah Scroll shows that Isaiah's foretelling of the Messiah was made well before the birth of Christ, since the scroll dates from 335 BC. Jesus is the only person who completed - fulfilled - these promises. Thus, Jesus Christ is the Messiah.
The Silver Scrolls (Ketef Hinnom scrolls) contain scriptures from Numbers and Deuteronomy. The Silver Scrolls date back to about 600 BCE. (AKA Ketef Hinnom scrolls) Dated to 650–587 BCE, during the First Temple period. One scroll contains an abbreviated version of the Priestly Blessing from Numbers 6:24–26 ("The Lord bless you and keep you.) The second scroll contains text matching Deuteronomy 7:9, speaking of God's covenant and mercy. Significance: They predate the famous Dead Sea Scrolls by more than 400 years. Their creation before the Babylonian exile proves that these biblical blessings and the divine name existed much earlier than some skeptical theories claimed. Textual Accuracy: The high match between the inscriptions and later traditional Bible texts shows that scribes copied the scriptures with remarkable care over the centuries. [1, 2]
Merneptah Stele is a large black granite block that lists the military victories of the ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah. Carved around 1205 BCE during Merneptah's reign. Found by Egyptologist Flinders Petrie at Thebes in 1896. Now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Stands roughly 7.5 to 10 feet tall. First Mention of Israel: It contains the oldest known written record of the name Israel outside of the Bible."Israel is laid waste, bare of seed." Egyptian told over Israel.
The Tel Dan Stele is a fragmentary stone containing a Canaanite inscription which dates to 900 BCE. It is notable for being the only written extra-biblical archaeological reference to King David. The Tel Dan Stele is a broken 9th-century BCE basalt stone monument discovered in northern Israel in 1993. It features an Aramaic victory inscription that provides the earliest known extra-biblical reference to the royal "House of David," offering concrete historical evidence for the dynasty.
Khirbet Qeiyafa Ostracon, 3,000 years old, Hebrew text...“But worship God”.....“Protect the poor and the slave”......“Support the stranger”...
Shelomit Seal: Hebrew text and image, 2,500 years old, Name (Shlomit) found in 1 Chronicles 3:19 and Ezra 8:10 Found in Jerusalem . Two priests at the incense altar worshiping.
Egyptian hieroglyph picture of "coat of many colors", same as that of Joseph and "his coat" of many colors mentioned in the bible.
Jehu is depicted on the Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, bowing and paying tribute to the Assyrian king, confirming his historical role.
The Hittites were an Ancient Middle Eastern people who established a large empire. The empire reached its height in 1350 BC in Asia Minor, modern-day Turkey. They are repeatedly mentioned throughout the Hebrew Bible as the adversaries of the Israelites and their God. Before the discovery of Hittite cities, the only source of information about the Hittites had been the Old Testament. Because of this, some doubted they were real. Bible texts note in the Books of Kings, they supplied the Israelites with cedar, chariots, and horses. They are also a friend to Abraham in the Book of Genesis.
The Soleb inscription is a 14th-century BCE Egyptian hieroglyphic text from the temple of Pharaoh Amenhotep III in Nubia (modern Sudan). It features the oldest known extra-biblical reference to Yahweh, the God of Israel, written as "the land of the Shasu of Yahweh"
The Mount Ebal inscription is a folded lead tablet—often called a curse tablet—discovered in December 2019 that is the oldest known Hebrew writing bearing the divine name Yahweh. Same text as Deuteronomy 27 and Joshua 8. [1, 2]
The Isaiah bulla was unearthed in 2009 together with the Hezekiah bulla by Dr. Eilat Mazar and her team, including students from Herbert W. Armstrong College. The seal was discovered next to the massive Solomonic-period Ophel walls. Hezekiah bulla is indisputable proof of the existence of the Judean king and his father, King Ahaz. Isaiah bulla has a preserved sliver of a motif at the top of the bulla is believed to be that of a grazing doe—imagery the prophet used in his book (Isaiah 11:6; 13:14; 35:6). A biblical bulla is a small piece of stamped clay used in ancient times to seal and secure important documents written on papyrus. When a sender tied a scroll with string, they pressed a signet ring into a wet lump of clay over the knot. This acted like a modern signature or tamper-proof seal.
Seal or bulla: (Historians view the bulla seals as artifacts as a tangible link to the administrative network and bureaucracy of ancient Judah)
Notable Biblical Bullae Found: King Hezekiah (Isaiah 36–39), King Ahaz, Jehucal, son of Shelemiah (opponent of the prophet Jeremiah, 2 Kings 16 ), Gedaliah, son of Pashur (Jeremiah 38:1), Nathan-Melech, Servant of the King (2 Kings 23:11), Gemariah, son of Shaphan (Jeremiah 36:10–12), and Baruch the Scribe (scribe of Jeremiah). The seal or bulla of Jerusalem Governor is a 2,700 year old minuscule mud seal bearing the impression "Belonging to the governor of the city', found in the Western Wall plaza excavations, inscribed in ancient Hebrew script. Yedayah, son of Asaiah Bulla, 2,600-year-old clay seal impression, 7th or early 6th century BCE, during the First Temple period (2 Kings 22:12).
The ancient Pool of Siloam from the Second Temple period—the era of Jesus—was accidentally discovered in June 2004 by sanitation workers repairing a water pipe south of Jerusalem's Temple Mount. The stepped pool spanning roughly 225 feet long with a trapezoidal shape, fed by waters from the Gihon Spring via Hezekiah's Tunnel. In the Gospel of John Jesus performed the miracle of healing the blind man. Earlier structures, including a massive First Temple-period dam, have also been unearthed nearby.
Hezekiah’s Tunnel, an underground rock-cut channel built in the 8th century BC. Roughly 1,750 feet (533 meters) long, carved in an S-shaped path through solid bedrock. Mentioned in 2 Kings 20:20 and 2 Chronicles 32:30. Siloam Inscription found inside the channel. The Siloam Inscription is a 2,700-year-old ancient Hebrew text carved into the bedrock wall of the Siloam Tunnel (Hezekiah's Tunnel) in Jerusalem. The Inscription is a six-line Paleo-Hebrew carving that describes how two teams of stonecutters dug from opposite ends of the 533-meter tunnel and successfully met in the middle by hearing each other's picks. Inscription was removed in the Ottoman period, the original stone is housed in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum in Turkey.
Archaeologists discovered a 3,300-year-old bronze figurine of the Canaanite god Baal at the Khirbet el-Rai site in south-central Israel in 2020. An 3,000-year-old Canaanite temple containing Baal statues was unearthed at Tel Lachish in 2020. A Baal “smiting god” figurine of the Canaanite god Baal, two seals, pottery, and a bronze calf figurine found at Khirbet el-Ra at. The decorated Baal pottery was of both Canaanite and Philistine origins. It was from the 12th century B.C.E. See 1 Samuel 27:5-6, 1 Samuel 30:1-3, Joshua 15:31 and Joshua 19:5.
Near Jerusalem was the Valley of Hinnom. Genesis 19:1–11, Judges 11:39, Leviticus 18:21, and 2 Kings 23:10 all describe Canaan’s Baal and Moloch rites, including child sacrifice to Canaanite and Phoenician deities. Ancient Roman and Greek texts state that the child was rolled into a fire pit to be killed. Archaeologists have found some of these pits and the cremated remains of thousands of infants and young children. Near Jerusalem was the Valley of Hinnom, used for child sacrifice to Baal, with many burnt babies. The Bible mentions these archaeological finds: Judges 2:11-13, 1 Kings 18, 2 Kings 10:18-28, Numbers 25, Ps 106:37, Lev 18:21, Lev 20:3, Is 30:33, Deu 12:30-31. This spans from 1500 BC to at least 700 BC; it was an ongoing problem.
NT:
King Herod the Great's tomb was found is Herodium. The tomb of Herod was discovered by Hebrew University professor Ehud Netzer on 8 May 2007 with his team of archeologists, above tunnels and water pools at a flattened site halfway up the hill to the hilltop palace-fortress of Herodium, 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) south of Jerusalem.[1] Later excavations strengthened the idea that this site is Herod's mausoleum.
Pontius Pilate Ring. Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea, was the final judge who sentenced Jesus to death by crucifixion. The "Pontius Pilate ring" is a 2,000-year-old copper-alloy sealing ring discovered at the Herodium fortress that features a Greek inscription spelling out the name "Pilate". The Design: The face of the ring shows a wine vessel called a krater, surrounded by Greek letters that spell Pilato, which translates to "of Pilate".
The most famous archaeological find naming Pontius Pilate is the Pilate Stone, a 1961 limestone inscription discovered at Caesarea Maritima that identifies him as the prefect of Judea. Now housed at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.
A bronze Prutah coin from 29–31 AD is an ancient Jewish copper coin minted in Jerusalem by the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate during the time of Jesus Christ.
Tomb of the high priest Joseph Caiaphas . Joseph ben Caiaphas was a High Priest of Israel during the first century. he was an organizer of the plot to kill Jesus . The tomb of the high priest Joseph Caiaphas was discovered in November 1990 by construction workers in the Peace Forest (ha-Shalom Forest) south of the Old City of Jerusalem.: One of the most ornate, fine limestone bone boxes bears the inscription "Joseph, son of Caiaphas" (Yoseph bar Qapa').
The Nazareth Inscription is a first-century marble tablet featuring a Greek imperial decree that imposes the death penalty for grave robbery and moving tomb-sealing stones. Declares an "Edict of Caesar" making it a capital offense to disturb tombs, remove buried bodies, or tamper with sealing stones. Some researchers connect a c. 41 AD dating to Roman reactions or inquiries regarding the stirring events and early claims of an empty tomb in Judea. Jesus rose about 33 AD. Some researchers connect the timeline to AD 41, suggesting it followed reports of early Christian growth and the empty tomb narrative. The chief priests bribe the guards to say Jesus' followers stole His body.
The Shroud of Turin is a 14-foot-3-inch by 3-foot-7-inch length of linen cloth bearing the faint, negative image of a naked man with physical trauma consistent with crucifixion. There is BOTH evidence for it being real and not being real. The positive evidence is how the image is on the cloth. Even with today's technology, it would be hard or impossible to make the image today. The image is only a micrometer into the cloth. Made with very strong energy, not paint or other matter. The cloth is made from flax, with pollen from Jerusalem plants on it. The problem there is much contamination on the cloth; it has been handled a lot and has smoke damage. Radiocarbon Dating: Tests conducted in 1988 by independent laboratories radiocarbon-dated the cloth to the medieval period (between 1260 and 1390 CE), suggesting it was a forgery, but in reality this date is the smoke damage date, also take was repaired edge containing later cotton threads. The image is a negative on the cloth; no other ancient art used negative imagery.
New Testament manuscripts are handwritten copies of the original biblical texts that date. The oldest date 100 AD. Greek manuscripts: Scholars have cataloged close to 5,800 to 5,850 handwritten copies in Greek. Ancient translations: Early versions in Latin, Syriac, Coptic, and other languages add more than 10,000 additional copies. This total far exceeds the manuscript evidence available for other classical ancient works, such as the writings of Homer or Plato. Early church fathers quoted the New Testament over 36,000 times before the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325, providing a massive external witness to the early text. Scholars note tens of thousands to over a million total citations exist across early Christian writings, sermons, and commentaries. Textual critics note that even if all direct Greek New Testament manuscripts were lost, nearly the entire New Testament could be reconstructed using only the quotations found in the works of the early Church Fathers. Writers from the 1st through 3rd centuries—such as Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Origen—frequently cited passages from the Gospels, Acts, and Pauline epistles.
Chris Tomlin, Ben Fielding record the "The First Hymn" from a 2,000-year-old papyrus fragment from Egypt. Written in Greek, Watch at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qTyJu9lyVkI
Excavations in Capernaum uncovered a first-century home beneath an octagonal Byzantine church that early Christians venerated as the house of the Apostle Peter. A 4th-century pilgrim named Egeria documented that the house of the prince of the apostles in Capernaum had been transformed into a church. Because the site was singled out for continuous religious use and expansion long before standard Byzantine church-building programs, many scholars consider it one of the most credible traditional holy sites in Galilee.
Nof Ginosa: A museum protects the "Jesus Boat," a remarkably preserved fishing vessel dating back 2,000 years to the time of Christ. That is we know what type of boat Jesus and his followers used.
Record of Nature fossils:
Fossilization takes at least 10,000 years . Cells are replaced with mineral-rich groundwater, then only minerals remain. The oldest known fossils are cyanobacteria from rocks found in Western Australia. Fossils are 3.5 billion years old. Most fossils are bones and shells, but sometimes soft tissues are fossilized. Dinosaur Skin, Bird feathers go back 145 million years ago.
Link to video on YouTube link
Ref:
I. Hajdas, “14.3–Radiocarbon: Calibration to Absolute Time Scale,” Treatise on Geochemistry, 2nd ed., ed. Heinrich D. Holland and Karl K. Turekian (Elsevier, 2014), 37–43, doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.01204-3.
Many studies use 5730 +/-40 yrs, but the most recent measurements find a half-life of 5700 +/-30 as in Walter Kutschera, (2019). “The Half-Life of 14C—Why Is It So Long?,” Radiocarbon 61, no. 5 (October 2019): 1135–1142, doi:10.1017/RDC.2019.26.
P. J. Reimer et al. (2020), “The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 cal kBP),” Radiocarbon 62, no. 4 (August 2020): 1–33, doi:10.1017/rdc.2020.41.
Adapted from A. Bayliss et al., “IntCal20 Tree Rings: An Archaeological Swot Analysis,” Radiocarbon 62, no. 4 (August 2020): 1045–1078, doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.77.
Bayliss et al., doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.77.
See Bayliss et al., doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.77 and Georges Bonani et al., “Radiocarbon Dating of Fourteen Dead Sea Scrolls,” Radiocarbon 34, no. 3 (1992): 843–849, doi:10.1017/S0033822200064158.
G. A. Rodley and B. E. Thiering, “Use of Radiocarbon Dating in Assessing Christian Connections to the Dead Sea Scrolls,” Radiocarbon 41, no. 2 (1999): 169–182, doi:10.1017/S0033822200019524.
M. Stuiver, P. J. Reimer, and R. W. Reimer, 2021, CALIB 8.2 [WWW program] at http://calib.org.
Norman E. Holden, “Total Half-Lives for Selected Nuclides,” Pure and Applied Chemistry 62, no. 5 (1990): 941–58, doi:10.1351/pac199062050941.
R. B. Firestone, “Observations of 23 Supernovae That Exploded <300 pc from Earth During the Past 300 kyr,” Astrophysical Journal 789, no. 1 (July 2014): id. 29, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/789/1/29.
R. L. K. Fullagar, D. M. Price, and L. M. Head, “Early Human Occupation of Northern Australia: Archaeology and Thermoluminescence Dating of Jinmium Rock-Shelter, Northern Territory,” Antiquity 70, no. 270 (December 1996): 751–73, doi:10.1017/S0003598X00084040.
Richard Roberts et al., “Optical and Radiocarbon Dating at Jinmium Rock Shelter in Northern Australia,” Nature 393 (May 28, 1998): 358–62, doi:10.1038/30718.
Roberts et al., “Optical and Radiocarbon Dating.”
Bruno David et al., “New Optical and Radiocarbon Dates from Ngarrabullgan Cave, a Pleistocene Archaeological Site in Australia: Implications for the Comparability of Time Clocks and for the Human Colonization of Australia,” Antiquity 71, no. 271 (March 1997): 183–88, doi:10.1017/S0003598X00084672.
R. L. K. Fullagar, D. M. Price, and L. M. Head, “Early Human Occupation of Northern Australia: Archeology and Thermoluminescence Dating of Jinmium Rock Shelter, Northern Territory,” Antiquity 70 (1996): 751-73.
Richard Roberts et al., “Optical and Radiocarbon Dating at Jinmium Rock Shelter in Northern Australia,” Nature 393 (1998): 358-62.
David B. Roberts, R. Tuniz, C. Jones, and R. & J. Head, “New Optical and Radiocarbon Dates from Ngarrabullgan Cave, a Pleistocene Archeological Site in Australia: Implications for the Comparability of Time Clocks and for the Human Colonization of Australia,” Antiquity 71 (1997): 183-88.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168900207004986
https://historum.com/t/issues-with-thermoluminescence.193226/
Nicolas Dauphas, “The U/Th Production Ratio and the Age of the Milky Way from Meteorites and Galactic Halo Stars,” Nature 435 (2005): 1203-05.
https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7046/abs/nature03645.html
Linda T. Elkins-Tanton and Sara Seager, “Ranges of Atmospheric Mass and Composition of Super-Earth Exoplanets,” Astrophysical Journal 685 (October 1, 2008): 1237–46.
Fabrice Gaillard and Bruno Scaillet, “The Sulfur Content of Volcanic Gases on Mars,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters 279 (March 15, 2009): 34–43.
Allen P. Nutman et al., “≥3700 Ma Pre-Metamorphic Dolomite Formed by Microbial Mediation in the Isua Supracrustal Belt (W. Greenland): Simple Evidence for Early Life?” Precambrian Research 183, no. 4 (December 15, 2010): 725–37.
Kenichiro Sugitani et al., “Biogenicity of Morphologically Diverse Carbonaceous Microstructures from the ca. 3400 Ma Strelley Pool Formation, in the Pilbara Craton, Western Australia,” Astrobiology 10, no. 9 (November 2010): 899–920.
Yanan Shen, Roger Buick, and Donald E. Canfield, “Isotopic Evidence for Microbial Sulphate Reduction in the Early Archaean Era,” Nature 410 (March 1, 2001): 77–81.
J. William Schopf, Cradle of Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 3.
Gary R. Huss et al., “Stellar Sources of the Short-Lived Radionuclides in the Early Solar System,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73, no. 17 (September 2009): 4922–4945, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2009.01.039.
Nicola Jones, “Buried Treasure,” Nature 446 (March 6, 2007): 126-28. Ice Core
K. K. Andersen et al., “High-Resolution Record of Northern Hemisphere Climate Extending into the Last Interglacial Period,” Nature 431 (2004): 147-51.
Laurent Augustin et al., “Eight Glacial Cycles from an Antarctic Ice Core,” Nature 429 (2004): 623-28; Jerry F. McManus, “A Great Grand-Daddy of Ice Cores,” Nature 429 (2004): 611-12; Gabrielle Walker, “Frozen Time,” Nature 429 (2004): 596-97.
Robert M. Carter and Paul Gammon, “New Zealand Maritime Glaciation: Millennial-Scale Southern Climate Change Since 3.9 Ma,” Science 304 (2004): 1659-62.
Larry Vardiman, “Rapid Changes in Oxygen Isotope Content of Ice Cores Caused by Fractionation and Trajectory Dispersion Near the Edge of an Ice Shelf,” Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal, vol. 11, no. 1 (1997): 52-60: Michael Oard, “Do Greenland Ice Cores Show Over One Hundred Thousand Years of Annual Layers?” Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal, vol. 15, no. 3 (2001): 39-42.
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